Study Of The High Crime Rate - 1113 Words

The study of the high crime rate in the city will include a range of research methods. I would indicate that there is no standard threshold for what constitutes a hot spot as well no clarity about what may be the best method to identify the area. In research of areas that may appear to be the hot spots in the city can vary depending on the area was researched. The variance in the research would fall into the unit of analysis, scale of the map, and the amount of data mapped. Having said that, moving forward I’ll explain the four methods that I will attempt to identify, describe, providing an example, indicate the relationship among them and lastly indicate which one would be best for identifying the highest crime. Each research method will be introduced to the same question in this process of (1) descriptive, (2) exploratory, (3) explanatory, and (4) quantitative research. These research methods will provide an interactively to provide an understanding of the question presented for the investigation (Criminology and criminal justice research: methods, 2016). When we apply the question, which area of the city has the most crime to the descriptive research? In the research process, the first method should always be descriptive. The results of this research attempt to define as well describe the social fact, occurrence, or circumstance observed of each area. This type of research data will include both quantitative and qualitative data which illustrate the population beingShow MoreRelatedHot Spots Policing Strategies For High Risk Crime Essay1489 Words   |  6 Pagesstrategies that focus on those areas most susceptible to high-risk crimes, as opposed to thinly spreading policing efforts across vast urban landscapes.  The findings of the two studies discussed below suggest that hot spots policing tactics may work in certain areas. However, these studies also suggest that a heavy saturation of police patrol in high-risk crime locations may be less effectiv e in particular areas. A common question posed about these studies is why hot spots policing strategies were rated effectiveRead MoreThe Violent Crime Rate Of Highly Disadvantaged Black Areas904 Words   |  4 PagesThe violent crime rate in highly disadvantaged Black areas was 22 per 1,000 residents, not much different from the 20 per 1,000 rate in similar white communities. There are still many people who mistakenly believe there is something about the â€Å"black neighbourhoods that make them more violent and prone to crime† (Krivo, L) . Krivo is a co-author of this study and associate professor of sociology at Ohio State University.The research shows that neighbourhoods with the most crime tend to be those withRead MoreViolence And Crime Plagues Societies Essay1452 Words   |  6 PagesViolence and crime plagues societies all over the world. It is an issue that almost all communities suffer from. I believe that we can use Geography to help come up with solution to reduc e the rate of crime across the United States and other countries all over the world. In this paper, I’m going to discuss the problems with crime we face in this country, the damage that crime can do to a society, and the multiple different ways we can use geography to bring down the rate of crime and violence. UsingRead MoreTheories Of Crime : Robbery1514 Words   |  7 PagesTheories of Crime – Robbery Introduction Understanding patterns and motivation of crimes is important for solving the mysteries surrounding them. In this sense, theories can be used to explain crime phenomena and answer the questions involved. Through theory, important aspects surrounding a crime can be discovered. Therefore, understanding the patterns and motivations of crimes can be helpful towards preventing their occurrence. This paper focuses on robbery as a type of crime. The two theoriesRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency And Urban Areas1557 Words   |  7 PagesIn 1942, Clifford Shaw and Henry D. McKay produced Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, which aimed to explain crime in urban communities using social disorganization theory. Elliot and Merrill (1934) define social disorganization as â€Å"a breakdown in the equilibrium of forces, a decay in the social structure, so that old habits and forms of social control no longer function effectively† (p.20). Using this definition and the ecological approach, Shaw a nd McKay argue that low economic status, ethnicRead MoreCorrelation Between Income Inequality And Homicide Rates1276 Words   |  6 Pagesanalyze the connection between income inequality and homicide rates. The data from Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniformed Crime Report (UCR) and National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) will be analyzed and the areas of highest homicide rates will be found. The income level of each region will be found by using the data from U.S Census Bureau. This project will also discuss why there is a connection between income inequality and crimes. It is predicted that people who live in suburban areas andRead MoreGuns Dont Kill People, Criminals Kill People Essay1476 Words   |  6 Pageshistory and perhaps, consequently, has among the highest rates of gun-related crime as well as gun ownership rates, among developed nations. There exists an abundance of scholarly work done in an effort to develop a solution to reducing America’s high levels of gun related crime; however, there exists no definitive answer to the problem and statistical data could support both arguments for and against guns. The general assumption among these studies, is that gun control, one way or another, will haveRead MoreTeen Delinquency : Is It A Conscious Choice? Teens And Crime?1165 Words   |  5 Pagesit a conscious choice? Teens and crime seem to be an unpredictable and ongoing problem. Teen crime rates rise and fall, but what is the cause of the increases and decreases in the rates? Experts are constantly doing studies and experiments to find patterns that hopefully explain it. If teen delinquency can be explained, then maybe it can be reduced through programs and other resources aimed at helping troubled teens and youth. Even with all the studies that have been done, experts stillRead MoreThe Effects Of Immigration On The United States847 Words   |  4 Pagesongoing debate: is there a crime-immigration nexus? This paper will explore data from various studies that have examined not only a negative relationship between crime rates and immigration, but also evidence of protective and generational effects of immigration. Arguing that immigration reduces crime rates rather than increases it, it will then examine the various theories that seek to explain this phenomenon. Many scholars are of the opinion that rather than a crime-immigration nexus, there isRead MoreThe Theory Of Social Disorganization Theory Essay1369 Words   |  6 Pagesat committing crimes than those who do not. There are many possible factors and reasons as to why people who live in poverty can commit more crimes that those who do not and this essay will attempt to explain that. The independent variable for this argument would be the poverty that individuals have to endure and live through, while the dependent variables are crime rates in that neighborhood. Although various theories can be used in order to explain the link between poverty and crime, the one that

Why Is Corruption a Problem - 1401 Words

Why is Corruption a Problem? Corruption is the use of public office for private gain, the use of official position, rank or status by an office bearer for his own personal benefit. (Khandu) Corruption can come in different forms, like bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft and embezzlement. (Paper) Corruption can be a major obstacle in the process of economic, political, social and environmental development and in modernizing a country. (Myint) Corruption can also affect people’s health, income inequality and poverty. This essay will talk about the underlying causes of corruption, its consequences, and why corruption is a problem for countries and its people. Corruption is a major constraint that is hindering the†¦show more content†¦A politician wants to build his new house near the lake, but the lake is circle with the forest. The regulation of cutting down the trees over at the forest is not allowed. But, the politician uses his power and his money to bribe the people that are in charge of the environmental officials so then he can build his house. It’s not only house though, and it’s not only politicians who do this. An owner of an industry might bribe the environmental officials as well to cut down the trees and build his going-to-be-very-polluted industry. (Contributor) The damage that is caused by corruption is huge, but it actually depends on which country we are talking about. An example would be England and Indonesia. The corruption in England is less than in Indonesia (it’s not like I’m saying that there’s no corruption in England). Thus, the damage that cost England is less than Indonesia because there’s more corrupt people in Indonesia and it’s also because Indonesia is a third world country. More damages are made through corruption in third world countries than any other countries, it’s because they aren’t developed yet, more likely they won’t develop because of the corruption. It very well is possible to measure the damages it cost. By looking at the country’s economic, social, environmental and political development and by looking at the country’s people, we could estimate just how many people have to suffer because of the corruption in the country. Many people in theShow MoreRelatedA Brief Note On Corruption Of Police Administration1474 Words   |  6 Pages Corruption in Police Administration Andrew Broyhill University of Central Missouri CJ 2101 November 17, 2015 Dr. Etters â€Æ' Corruption in Police Administration Police corruption is a problem that has and will always impact us all. It has always existed and has changed policing in several dramatic ways. However, one simple element of corruption has always been apparent. It’s never NOT happening. Unfortunately, police corruption is an on going problem that isn’t slowing down. In fact, in the pastRead MorePublic Awareness And Its Effect On Society1206 Words   |  5 Pagesconsequent corruption. Corruption should not allow to run continuously. Though the remedy of corruption is not an easy task, it is a crying need to stop for the greater interest of society. To make countries free from corruption, citizens of all classes should be responsible, accountable, dutiful and considerate. Nepotism, favoritism, etc. should be dealt with up most seriousness. To lead in peace in the society it is essential to stop it. This curse should not be allowed to continue. Anti-corruption commissionRead MoreAdministrative Corruption Is Now A Buzzwo rd For The Current Era Essay1360 Words   |  6 PagesAdministrative corruption is now a buzzword for the current era. It differs from country to country as it’s effects are varying on the basis of socio ­economic and political structure and the proportion of a nation’s growth. It makes a public or, private organisation untrustworthy and increase nullification negligence and in society. Corruption has been the problem belonging ever since from the human civilisation.Corruption is not a new phenomenon Bangladesh. It got heavily engaged with the administrativeRead MoreThe Un Global Compact Underlines900 Words   |  4 PagesThe UN Global Compact underlines ‘Corruption is now recognized to be one the world’s greatest challenges’. Similarly, underlining its significance Kofi Annan argues ‘Corruption hurts the poor disproportionately – by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a government’s ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice and discouraging foreign investment and aid’ (Adeyeye 2012: 2). In addition to the importance of corruption in the policy agenda, there is emergingRead MoreCause and Effect of Corruption1644 Words   |  7 PagesThere is a growing worldwide concern over corruption at the present time. Several factors are responsible for this. A consensus has now been reached that corruption is universal. It exists in all countries, both developed and developing, in the public and private sectors, as well as in non-profit and charitable organizations. Allegations and charges of corruption now play a more central role in politics than at any other time. Governments have fallen, careers of world renowned public figures ruinedRead MorePublic Corruption Aimee836 Words   |  4 PagesCritical Essay Analysis Public Corruption Aimee L. Romero Kaplan University CJ340-02:    Applied Criminal Justice Ethics 1102C March 2011 Term Instructor: Lance Oakland Abstract Corruption is clearly everywhere around us with many forms and is a world-wide crisis. A day doesn’t go by that there isn’t a report in the media about some form of corruption by someone famous or internationally known, a Politian or an average every day citizen just perhapsRead MoreAssessing the Settlement of Laws Related to Corruption: Tanzania1583 Words   |  7 Pages RESEARCH PROPOSAL 1. INTRODUCTION This paper is critically assess the settlement of the laws related to the corruption. Corruption at this context simply means misuse of public office for private gain. According to Black law dictionary [1] corruption means the act of doing something with an intent to give some advantage inconsistent with official duty and the rights of others Now are the Tanzanian laws settled to ensure that there is freeRead MoreThe effects of Corruption and Capitalism Essay1724 Words   |  7 Pagescontentment. When an individual thinks of achieving the American Dream, they only see the light at the end of the tunnel and not the struggles that come with it. In the political fiction novel, The Jungle, Upton Sinclair portrays the effects of corruption and capitalism on the world. Sinclair does so by showing how depraved the capitalist government can be and how tremendously this affects the lives of the innocent. Three Lithuanian Immigrants by the names of Jurgis Rudkas, Teta Elzbieta LukoszaiteRead MoreSerpico1329 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Jermaine Carmichael Criminal Justice 102 Ms. Naide 03/26/14 The reason I chose Serpico is because I thought this book would talk about a cop trying to do the right thing, which was to change the crooked system that allowed corruption. This non-fiction talks about the criminality that takes place in this book. For example Serpico was plainclothesmen which was patrolmen working out of uniform on special assignments like narcotics, prostitution, and gambling, so it was a lot of opportunitiesRead MorePolice Corruption968 Words   |  4 Pageselection law violations; (13) corruption of public officials; (14) copyright violations; (15) computer crimes; (16) environmental crimes; and (17) receiving stolen property This assignment requires us to write a paper on a form of white-collar crime that we feel is the must dangerous form and why. I feel the most dangerous form of white-collar crime is police corruption, which is also defined as public corruption. Public or police corruption is defined as; Public corruption involves a breach of public

Death of a Salesman Willy Lomans Failure as a Father free essay sample

Willy Loman, the main character in Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, has a powerful father role in the lives of his two sons, Biff and Happy. Willy, a man in his mid sixties, has not only strived to become a successful salesman, but also acts the successful father role, something that was lacked in his own childhood. Willy’s own actions and mistakes in his everyday lifestyle, influence Biff to believe that he has become a failure at the age of thirty-four. Happy, the younger of the two siblings has found that he has a growing obsession with women, similar to his father’s own affair. The diminishing level of confidence the boys have towards their father has created a terrible fate for the two sons. Willy Loman being unable to realize his mistakes and correct them as well as not changing his morals has set up his sons’ for failure. Biff Loman’s future looked bright when he was in high school- being the star football player with three major scholarships to colleges looked pretty promising- but yet returns home when he is much older claiming that he is â€Å"finding himself. † After flunking math his senior year, Biff looked to his father for help, only to catch him in the midst of an affair. The affair changed Biff’s views on his father, someone who he used to greatly admire then questions his father’s hopes for Biff. Biff’s dream is to move out west and live out on a cattle ranch while his father wants him to follow his footsteps to become a salesman: the job that Willy feels is the ultimate dream. When home, Biff tries everything in his power to attempt the path Willy has set out for him, even meeting with a possible job employer to create a new business. Biff confides in Happy and says, â€Å"And then he gave me one look and- I realized what a ridiculous lie my whole life has been† (Miller 104). After the failure of this interview, Biff is left to feel as though his father is the one at fault and the reason that Biff is unsettled at his age, especially when Willy will not listen to Biff when he tries to explain his failure. Growing up, Willy taught Biff that appearance is what determined your status in life which led to Biff striving for success in sports and popularity in an attempt to feel prideful. Being unsuccessful and seen as lazy through his father’s eyes makes Biff feel as though it is not his fault. Biff was good at sports and such, but was not living up to other’s expectations, such as keeping passing grades in order to go to college. However, Biff risked future self-happiness in order to fall under his father’s beliefs of success. After failing in comparison to Bernard, who becomes a successful lawyer, Biff feels justified to blame it all on his father because of Willy’s actions. Willy acts as though he is perfect , when talking to his sons he says, †And when I bring you fellas up, there’ll be open sesame for all of us, ‘cause one thing, boys: I have friends† (31). Willy is convinced that selling has made him a respected and successful man . In reality, his â€Å"perfect life† is shadowed by the affair. Willy lives a life of illusion; believing success at the cost of losing his family if his lies catch up with him. Having a lying failure of a father leaves Biff to believe his own failure is because of his father. On the contrary, Happy Loman, the younger of the two Loman siblings, has always felt less favored than his brother Biff. Growing up, Happy would constantly aim to please his father and make Willy proud of him. In a flashback to high school, Happy repeatedly asks his father, â€Å"I’m losing weight, you notice, Pop? † (33). When it seems that all the attention is on Biff and his scholarships for football, Happy is left feeling unappreciated from the man he admires the most and sets out to prove himself. Now older, Happy has become a womanizer. However, he is dissatisfied because he feels as though he is a higher rank and a better person than his coworkers. Happy tries to prove this believed rank to himself by sleeping with the girlfriends of fellow employees and then going to their weddings. As a distraction from the fact that Happy is not the most successful businessman, the job he pursued to impress his father by following in his footsteps, Happy turns to women. When in the restaurant, Happy lies to the two women about his job and lifestyle, â€Å"I sell champagne† (101), â€Å"At West Point( )† (102). Similarly to Willy and his affair, Happy is looking for a way out of an unsuccessful lifestyle. Willy has the desire to escape business and his insecurities and finds the ego-boost in The Woman. Happy similarly believes that these rendezvous with many women will make him feel accomplished and worth something. This can again be traced back to Willy. Had Willy given more attention to Happy and feed his ego, Happy would not feel the need to prove something. After Willy failed to give Happy the sense of pride that was needed led Happy to gain an obsession with women and a negative shaping of personality. The fate for Biff and Happy Loman are very different, but both can thank their father’s actions. For Biff, the audience is left in hopes that he will finally pursue his dream of moving out west. Had Willy not constantly pushed Biff into selling, Biff would not have a dawn of realization. Once Biff found out about Willy’s affair, Biff realized the bead affect Willy had on his life. Along with the constant arguments, Biff realizes the lying life Willy had lived and is determined to not fall in his footsteps. Had Willy not begun lying, Biff would not gain a new view on his father and set out to change his own personality and stop aiming to please Willy. Happy on the other hand believes that replicating his father is the only way to get respect from Willy. After growing up underappreciated, Happy is determined to make his parents proud, even being desperate enough to follow along with his father’s illusions and wandering mind; as long as it keeps Willy happy. In the end of the play Happy declares, â€Å"I’m getting married, Pop, don’t forget it. I’m changing everything† (133). After hearing Willy constantly argue with Biff, Happy tries to make positive attention fall on him. Determined to seek pride, Happy is destined to fail just as his father did. In the requiem, Happy says, â€Å"I’m gonna show you and everybody else that Willy Loman did not die in vain. He had a good dream. It’s the only dream you can have- to come out number-one man. He fought it out here , and this is where I’m gonna win it for him† (139). Happy sees his future identical to his father and tries to become the successful businessman that Willy always dreamed of becoming. Happy believes that Willy is still admirable and has the upmost respect for him. If Happy had not always felt underappreciated and second to his brother, he would not feel as desperate to become his father. This last hope seems impossible and has become an unhappy fate for Happy. Had Willy not been caught in his affair and taught the wrong morals to Biff as well as give equal attention to both sons, Biff and Happy’s fate would be less grim. Altogether, Willy Loman’s character as a father set up his sons’ destinies without even knowing it. The negative relationship that had become between the three was determined due to Willy’s actions and decisions. Willy’s failure to be truthful and teach the ways to success left Biff feeling justified to blame his own failure on his father. Willy’s favoritism towards Biff left Happy insecure and opened the gate to Happy’s obsession for women and the search for pride. Willy’s mistakes and failure as a salesman and a father created a negative fate for both Biff and Happy. The poor choices and actions Willy made shaped his children’s identity in a poor way.

Private Equity Performance

Question: Discuss about the Private Equity Performance. Answer: Introduction In modern world, the pressure is greater than the earlier times which has created a huge impact on the running of business. There is a wide range of instruments in the derivative world, which have to be considered and handled in todays world. The costs have increased to a larger extent as the inefficiencies of operations has increased. The range of assets is growing endlessly, by the passage of time and thus, the requirement of managing such assets is increasing. The instruments of derivatives and equity had arrived much earlier, but the use is growing in the recent times. The private banks and fund managers are engaged in the usage of new types of market instruments. The instruments carry a huge amount of risk in the manner of processing and others, which form a part of the portfolio of the client. There are a number of areas which requires variances and development due to the challenges in terms of the structure of an organization, development of products, process of investments, c ommunication structure, legal and compliance, management of risks etc. The intelligent managers are growing at a faster pace by the creation of new products and markets, by shifting from the traditional strategies and ideas to a modernize market ideology and strategies (Aouni et al., 2014). Portfolio and performance of Equity As stated by Aouni et al., 2014, the emergence of financial economy has lead to substantial advantages for the mediocre- income countries and the developing ones, globally. The opening of the financial plans has brought about great deal of motivation for the investors all around the world. They are able to expand and specialize in the choice of investments, in the local and international assets, which has increased the rate of returns as per their expectations. They are also able to increase their financial ideas and also fund the plans of expansion. The investment procedure is becoming more efficient which is leading to a boost in the living and other standards of investors. Globalization of financial markets has demonstrated a double sided nature. The country which has increased the economic growth, through liberalization has also increased the risk of crisis in the financial growth and development. Portfolio flows has been a major controversial aspect of financial downfall in most countries across the world. As stated by Klingebiel, Rammer, 2014, Asset allocation is the strategy to balance the risks and rewards, in which the portfolio assets are apportioned as per the requirements of an individual. There are two major forms of portfolio allocation which are as follows: Strategic asset allocation: It requires the setting up of targets for the allocation and then rebalancing of such portfolio in a periodical manner. The procedure is similar to the buying and holding and not the trading concept. The allocation targets changes over a period of time as per the change in the investors goals and objectives and as per the horizon of time. Tactical asset allocation: It allows a range of percentages in a class of assets which consist of a minimum and maximum percentage of acceptances by an investor, in order to gain advantage from the market conditions and factors. Thus, one can move upward to the higher end of range when the stock expectation to grow better increases; and move towards the lower end of range after the expectation grows miserable and depressing. As discussed by Bodie et al., 2014; for the management of investment, there are two basic approaches: Active management of asset: It is based on a fundamental principle that, by following a particular style of analyzing produces returns and rewards which can control the market activities. The inefficiencies present in an economy can be turned into an advantage, and it is escorted with higher than average costs. One who is in the favor of the approach of active management,the selectionof the stock is usually based on the following styles: Top Down approach One, who follows such approach, firstly looks at the whole market scenario and policies which help in the determination of the likelihood of such industries which will grow well, given the present cycle of economic flow. After the making of the choice, specific stocks are selected on the basis of companies which will prove to be an advantage as per the particular industry. Bottom Down approach One, who follows such approach, ignores the conditions of market and the trends which are expected to continue for every year. The companies are put under an evaluation procedure, in which they mark on the strength of their financial statements and other criteria. The main ideology and concept behind following such approach, is that a strong company is likely to develop and grow no matter what economic and market conditions occur and prevail. Passive management of asset: It is based on a principle, that there is efficiency in every market scenario and that the returns from the market cannot exceed in a regular manner. The investments of lower costs which are to be held for a longer term can help in the gathering of the best returns and advantages. One who is in the favor of the approach of passive management,the selectionof the stock is usually based on the following concepts and theories: Efficient market theory The above theory forms the basis of an idea that the information which creates an impact an emphasis on the market and economy is easily available and processed by all the investors. The information consists of changes in the management of the company and interest rate announcements and others. The believers of such theory consider that there can be no way to thrash the market average. Indexing To gain advantage from the efficient market theory, index funds can be used. Also, a portfolio can be developed which would be a mimic of a special index. The index funds mostly consist of transaction costs and expense ratio, which are lower than the average of the same. They help in surpassing the actively funds which are managed well and have higher costs and expenses. Investors must consider the need of investing in a fast developing firm or low priced industries. These judgments can be passed by looking at the key financial metrics described below: Growth Investing The style of growth and returns decides the investors point of view of deciding the portfolio to be considered. An investor looks for the firms that have higher earnings, rates of growth, return on equity, margin of profit and lower yields of dividend. The Investing on growth is based on the idea that, if an industry has all the above features, then it is earning a lot in terms of monetary value and also is innovating in its field of service. Thus, the growth is at a much greater pace and also it is in the process of the reinvestment of its majority earnings to continue the growth stability and development in the future times. Value Investing The style of investing focuses on the trading of strong industries at a good value. They look for a lower price to earnings and price to sales ratio and a higher yield of dividend. The value style shows the price of buying and investing. Also, the preference for investing in small or larger companies is a question of investors. Thus, the measuring capacity of a company size is called capitalization of market or cap for short. The capitalization of a market is the number of shares outstanding, of a stock which is multiplied by the price of share. Smaller Cap Few investors believe that small capitalized companies are capable in the deliverance of better returns as they have huge amount of opportunities for development and are swifter in nature. However, there is a high risk for the greater returns which can be derived from those small caps. Also, the firms which are smaller in size have lesser resources and often they have less diverse lines of business. The share prices are much wider and flexible which cause huge losses or gains. Thus, investors can be comfortable in undertaking such extra levels of risk, if they want to acquire greater rewards and returns. Larger Cap The major risk avoidance investors are more comfortable with the stocks of larger caps. The larger caps such as Microsoft and GE have been around for a while and have overpowered the industries. These industries are unable to develop in a quick manner as they already are so huge in nature and size. However, they are unlikely to get out of the business without any warning. The larger cap investors can be expected to gain slight lower returns as compared to the smaller caps. But, the risk is higher in smaller caps and larger in larger caps (Beringer, Jonas Kock, 2013). Thus, the above decision should be taken as per the style which will be a fit for the investors and will feel comfortable while holding for a longer term. A risk is the measure of possible value of losing or gaining of expected returns, delivered from an investment. It is very uncertain and there are various types of risks which form the part of the market and economy. As stated and discussed by Pinedo Walter, 2013 the risks are defined and described below: Investment Risks To make suitable recommendations and decisions from an investors point of view, the concept of risk undertaken while making an investment must be understood well and efficiently. Every investment carries certain amount of risk and vulnerability which is associated with the nature and amount of risk which can be overcome by an investor. One should understand the trade off requirement between returns and amount of risk which are assumed by investors who are willing to face such risks in order to achieve their financial goals and objectives. Interest Rate Risks It is a possibility of a debt with fixed rates to decline in the terms of value, which is a result of a potential increase in the rate of interest. The investors on buying the securities with a fixed rate of return expose themselves to a higher rate of risks. This is possible for bonds and stocks and cant be denied. Business Risks The measuring of the risks which are in association with the particular securities and bonds are considered under the business risks. It is also known as unsystematic risk and all businesses in the similar industry comprises of similar business risks. To be more specific, all the business risk refers to the possible situations in which the stock or bond issuer faces bankruptcy and become unable to pay off the interest and principal amounts in case of bonds. Also, a common and easy way for the avoidance of such unsystematic risks is the diversification by the buying of mutual funds, as they hold stocks and bonds of many various companies. Credit Risk The possibility of a particular bond issuer to not make the payments or principal repayment as per the expected rate of interest is referred to as the Credit risk. The higher interest rate of bond increases the credit risk of a particular bond. Taxability Risk The risk of security which was issued with the status of exemption, have a potential expectation to lose the status before the maturity. Since, the bonds of municipal nature carry a lower rate of interest than the fully taxable ones; the holders of bond will have a lower yield as per their expectations. Call Risk The possibility of a bond security to be called up before the maturity period is known as the call risk. It moves parallel to the risk of reinvestment and the bond holder must be capable of finding an investment which can provide same amount of income for the amount of risk. When the rates of interest are declines, call risk becomes more active as the companies trying to avoid expense will redeem the issue of bonds and replace with lower rate of interests. Inflationary Risk The risk of purchasing power and inflationary is used interchangeably and, it is the chance of an asset to erode off as inflation causes decline in the currency of a country. It is also the risk of an investment declination, which is caused by the future inflation. In order to fight strongly against such risks, appreciable investments should be taken resort of, as they can stay ahead of inflation over a much longer period of time. Liquidity Risk It refers to the possibility of an investor to be able to buy or sell an investment and as per the desire and sufficient requirements as there are limited opportunities. It can be overcome by sale of real estate and in most cases there is no difficulty in the sale of such property and assets. Market Risk Systematic risk and market risk is interchangeably used and it refers to the risk which can affect all the securities in a similar way. It is a risk which cannot be controlled by result of diversification and the important point is the correct way of recommendation of mutual funds. Reinvestment Risk The bonds which are on the verge of becoming due are often forced to buy securities which do not provide same income levels, unless the credit or market risk capability of the investor increases. It is the risk which the declining rate of interest will lead to decline in the flow of cash from an investment. It happens when the payments of the principal and interest rates are reinvested at lower rates. Political or legislative Risk The risk which is associated with the possibility of the actions of government or social changes and results in the lowering of the value is termed as social, political or legislative risk. Currency or Exchange Risk It is a type of risk which arises from the fluctuations in currency of one country with the country. If a countrys asset comprises mainly of foreign assets, then it can be a major issue, as the risk increases when the currency of such country drops particularly (Teller Kock, 2013). The risk of currency is lower in case of long term investments as they have time to level off the risk over the time period. Conclusion Thus, on the survey of the various types of investments done above, we can get an overall view that most of the investments are full of risk and are unpredictable on majority basis. The various approaches of investments are described above which very well explains the risk and reward of the same. The global financial structure and economical conditions are changing and the requirements of the investors are changing accordingly. The pattern of the investor and the trends followed by the modern investors are explained above. Thus, we can conclude that there various factors and instruments which define the nature of risks. The instrument which can perform the best is analyzed and thus to take a portfolio decision, one needs to attain a super knowledge about the different theories and approaches connected with the same. The best analysis tools should be used and performed and the risk and rewards must be evaluated as per the requirements of the investors. The investors must be highly updated with the types and manner to avoid all kinds of risk which prevail in the market place. 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